The Seventeenth Century (1603-1660) and Metaphysical Poetry:

General Introduction and Historical Background:

The beginning of the 17th century as whole was more relaxed when compared to Elizabethan age as the renaissance enthusiasm had spent itself. There was also a great divide in the minds of the people regarding religious or political matters. There was uncertainty about the future of oneself or one’s country. The earlier spirit of adventure was missing in the people. As far as literature output was concerned, it did not decrease but it had lost its vigor and creativity as it had spread itself thin over wider fields. Before the end of Elizabeth’s rule there had been a change in the spirit of the century. As the queen grew old her nation also seemed to lose its youth and vigor. After Elizabeth James I succeeded her to the throne.

The last decade of the 16th century presents a new kind of poetry with John Donne (1573-1631) whose work belongs to the period of James, though he was 30 years old when he died. In spirit Donne belongs less to the Elizabethan poetry and more to the period of James. Hence we can say the major poets of the early 17th century were john Donne and other metaphysical poets. The early seventeenth century extends from the accession of the first Stuart king (James I) in 1603 to the coronation of the third (Charles II) in 1660.The events that happened between these two historical dates can  bring clarity and give a complete understanding if viewed as a larger picture. It is true that between these two important dates, greater social and political events occurred to shadow the two monarchical rule of the sixteenth century and the eighteenth century The early seventeenth century felt a deep sense of dissatisfaction and challenge in the literary sphere. As a reaction we see the poetry of Donne and his school. We see the fusion of intellect and feeling in Donne and his metaphysical poets

At the same time we cannot forget the important influence of the Puritan Revolt of 1640-60 which brought in secular stability to the country of England. The century together with the English Revolution was a time of intense turmoil in all areas of life —religion, science, politics, domestic relations, culture. That turmoil was reflected in the literature of the era, which also registered a heightened focus on and analysis of the self and the personal life. However, little of this seems in evidence in Michael Drayton's long "chorographical" poem on the landscape, regions, and local history of Great Britain (1612), which appeared in the first years of the reign of the Stuart king James I (1603-1625). The great seventeenth-century heroic poem, ’Paradise lost’, treats the Fall of Man and its tragic consequences.

The century saw the emergence of important issues such as: "Gender, Family, and Household. “Seventeenth-Century Norms and Controversies" provides important religious, legal, and domestic advice. It helps clarify cultural assumptions about gender roles and the patriarchal family, through texts and illustrations. It also invites attention to, how those assumptions are modified or challenged in the practices of actual families and households. It also throws lights on various gender issues such as women speaking in church, divorce, women's worth, talents, and rights; and especially in the upheavals of the English Revolution. The period also saw the great work of Milton “Paradise lost”

The great epic forces the readers to examine how it utilizes and interprets the Genesis story, how it uses classical myth, how it challenges orthodox ideas of innocence, and how it is positioned within but also against the epic tradition from Homer to Virgil. The most important thoughts that occupied the people’s mind and forced them to think were on politics, religion and culture. It provides an opportunity to explore some of the issues and conflicts that led to civil war and the overthrow of monarchical government (1642-60). The highlight to all this was the highly dramatic trial and execution of King Charles I (January 1649),

Outline of seventeenth century:

James I. Elizabeth was followed to the throne by James VI of Scotland, who became James I of England. James believed in the absolute power of the monarchy, and he had a unstable relationship with an increasingly demanding

Parliament .Her successor James I of England was a bigot. Under his rule the court corruption increased. During James' reign radical Protestant groups called Puritans began to gain a sizeable following. Puritans wanted to "purify" the church by bringing down church ritual, educating the clergy, and limiting the powers of bishops. The nation found itself divided into two factions .One the one hand there were cavaliers, courtiers ,nobles, the church and on the other hand the puritans comprising the large number of middle class controlled by the religious principles of reformation. The puritans advocated strict views on life and conduct. The gulf widened. Puritanism emerged as a great national power. Puritanism became a great moral, political and religious force. The upper class had the sympathies of serious men of society and thus increased its social and moral influence.

Political and religious tensions intensified under James’s son, Charles I, who succeeded to the throne in 1625. Parliament made increasing demands, which the king refused to meet. Neither side was willing to budge. Finally in 1642 fighting broke out. The English Civil War (1642-1646) divided society largely along class lines. Parliament drew most of its support from the middle classes, while the king was supported by the nobility, the clergy, and the peasantry. When King Charles tried to encroach upon the civil rights of the people, a great conflict broke out. In 1642 under the rule of Charles I civil war broke out.

The civil war officially ended in 1649 with the execution of Charles I. The period which follows is known as the Interregnum (from Latin), implying a "time between" kings, because there was no king during this time. For most of it, England was ruled by Oliver Cromwell as Lord Protector (a sort of dictator/president), and the government was styled, first, a Commonwealth, and then a Protectorate. In 1660 Parliament offered to restore the monarchy if Charles would agree to concessions for religious toleration and a general amnesty. Charles was not as hard-headed as his father, and he agreed to the proposals. Monarchy’ was restored in 1660, which we refer to as ‘The Restoration. He returned to London on a wave of popular support to be crowned Charles II (1660-85).  Less than two years after Cromwell's death; his son and followers simply couldn't muster the iron will or the personal and military power to keep the nation unified after his death.

The war and its consequences had tremendous effects on the literature of the day. Most of the writers in this period considered themselves "Cavaliers," that is, they supported the monarchy. But "Cavalier" implies more than just "Royalist" term for the troops and forces of the King, and later those who wanted to restore the monarchy). It implies, for instance, a particular class of man: Courtly, well-educated, and genteel.

The effect of Puritanism on the general English life and attitude was very deep. The spirit of Puritanism that was introduced was noble and fine but at the same time it was very rigid and stern. This brought about narrowness in its outlook. In its preoccupation with the moral and religious things it neglected science, art, knowledge and beauty which gave life value and happiness. Puritanism destroyed humane nature and tried to confine literature in its own field of particular interests. This restricted art as well as literature. It was a rare writer who would be able to rise beyond its narrow confines.

The absence of any sharp line of separation between the literature of the reign of Elizabeth and of those of James I and Charles I is very visible in poetry. In Milton we find the greatest writer, the product of Puritanism, in whose work is found moral and religious influences of Puritanism as well as free spirit of renaissance Milton is the greatest English poet. we find in him the wonderful combination of intellect and creative power, both at their highest. He is the most sublime of the English poets, the master of grand style. In his descriptive power and language he cannot be compared to anyone, he was superior. His subject matter had majesty of thought. His poems had beauty and style. . His life falls naturally into three periods: 1. Youth and preparation, 1608-1639, when he wrote his shorter poems. 2. Public life, 1639-1660, when he wrote, or at least published, in poetry, only a few sonnets. 3. Later years, 1660-1674, of outer defeat, but of chief poetic achievement, the period of 'Paradise Lost,' 'Paradise Regained,' and 'Samson Agonistes.'

Two short poems were written during his college days. Milton had planned to enter the ministry, but it was not possible because of circumstances around him. on leaving the University in 1632 he retired to the country estate  His poems 'L'Allegro' and 'Il Penseroso' describe the pleasures of suburban life viewed in moods  of light-hearted happiness and of reflection. His poem 'Comus,' the last of the Elizabethan and Jacobean masks, combines an exquisite poetic beauty' Lycidas' is one of the supreme English elegies; though the grief which helps to create its power sprang more from the recent death of the poet's mother than from that of the nominal subject, his college acquaintance, Edward King.

Milton's first period ends with an experience designed to complete his preparation for his career as a poet.He embarked on a fifteen months' tour in France and Italy, where the highest literary circles received him cordially. The twenty years which follow, the second period of Milton's career, developed and modified his nature and ideas in an unusual degree and fashion which helped in his poetic creativity, Milton stands out as a noble figure In the remaining fourteen years which make the third period of his life. His very obstinacy and egoism now enabled him to maintain his proud dignity in the middle of the lost cause of his support towards republic ,though he had by then become poor, lonely and blind.. The important fact of this last period, however, is that Milton now had the leisure to write, or to complete, 'Paradise Lost. In this purpose he was entirely successful. As a whole, by the consent of all competent judges, 'Paradise Lost' is worthy of its theme, perhaps the greatest that the mind of man can conceive, namely 'to justify the ways of God. ''Paradise Lost' was published in 1677. It was followed in 1671 by 'Paradise Regained,' only one-third as long and much less important; and by 'Samson Agonists.' The Metaphysical poets who followed Donne (such as Herbert, Crashaw, Vaughan, and Cowley) tried to reinforce the traditional lyric forms of love and devotion by stretching them to contain new and extreme intellectual forms. In the other direction, Jonson and his “disciples” the so-called Cavalier poets (such as Herrick, Suckling, Lovelace, Waller, and Denham) generally tried to compress and limit their poems, giving them a high polish and sense and in the process restraining the intellectual content.  The common contrast of Cavalier with Metaphysical does describe two poetic alternatives of the early century.  Yet both style were wholly inadequate to come up to the lofty style and high thinking of Milton. Metaphysical poetry was unconventional and uses such unconventional figures such as a compass or a mosquito to reach surprise effects .Donne uses material from unlikeliest sources, partly from the activities of everyday life, but especially from all the sciences and knowledge of his time. The material is abstract but Donne gives it poetic picture. Because of this quality Dr Johnson applied to Donne and his followers the term metaphysical poets.

In one of Donne’s poems, the point of a compass represents two lovers where the woman is waiting at home and the man being a wanderer is anchored by the woman. Separation makes the heart grow fonder. Donne possessed the keenest intellect and had genuine poetic feeling. He studied law and theology. In this period he wrote love as well as religious poems. The distinguishing feature of Donne’ poetry is the combination of intellect and feeling. Donne’s poetry attracts in a unique manner. By detailed elaboration and extreme exaggeration, Donne carries Elizabethan conceit to the extent possible.

Summary:

Elizabeth I died in 1603 after four decades of rule on the throne. James VI succeeded her to the throne. He had literary interests. Yet he supported strict theories of kingship and gave rise to corruption in his court. Political and religious tensions intensified under James’s son, Charles I, who succeeded to the throne in 1625.Charles tried to encroach upon the civil rights of the people. It intensified the already existing divide between the puritans who advocated strict views on life and conduct and the cavaliers (who were the supporters of the king), the church, the courtiers and the nobles. In 1642 civil war broke out. The conflict ended with the beheading of Charles in 1649.

Oliver Cromwell ruled England as the lord protector. He was as autocratic as Charles was. After ten years Charles’ son Charles II was invited home from exile. He ruled England as King from 1660-1685. These twenty-five year period brought about concepts such as separation between church and state, freedom of expression, freedom of press that would continue for centuries to come.

Early seventeenth century writers such as John Donne, George Herbert, Robert Herrick, Thomas Carew, and Andrew Marvel distinguished themselves as metaphysical poets. They were men of learning. Their thoughts are new but never natural. Their work is filled with affected writings, conceits, strained metaphors, far-fetched similes and the most exaggerated hyper-bole. They combine intellect with feeling. The civil war was not profitable to royal theatres, many of which closed down. The two best writers of this period Milton and Andrew Marvel supported the republic. On the restoration of monarchy, Milton was arrested. He was later released and allowed to live in political obscurity. He was by then blind, poor and lonely. Milton was bitterly disillusioned where revolution failed to realize his ideals.