Characteristics of the Romantic period in English Literature (1789-1837)

Introduction:

Extending from about 1789 until 1837, the romantic age stressed emotion over reason. Beginning of the century, enthused by ideas of personal and political liberty and of the spontaneity and sublimity of the natural world, artists and intellectuals tried to break the bonds of 18th-century convention. English literature in the Romantic Period was influenced by three great Historical Events. The Industrial Revolution in 1769, The American war of Independence in 1776 which, influenced England from a political and economic point of view; and the French Revolution which Influenced the ideology of the British.

One of the three greatest movements in modern history, the French Revolution exercised a profound influence on English thought and literature. One objective of the French Revolution (1789-1799) was to destroy an older tradition that had come to seem artificial, and to assert the freedom and spirit, of the human race. The feelings caused by these three events found an expression in the Romantic period. These became the creative outputs of the idealist mind . Sympathy for political movements empowered the lower classes--This showed itself in the support for the French Revolution.  Although the works of French writers Jean Jacques Rousseau and William Godwin had great influence, the French Revolution and its aftermath had the strongest impact of all in England. Initial support for the Revolution was primarily idealist, and when the French failed to live up to expectations, most English intellectuals renounced the Revolution. However, the romantic vision had taken deep root and the cause became other than political.

Outline of the Romantic period:

Let us have a look at the causes of French revolution as it had profound effect on English literature. During the two centuries while England had been steadily progressing towards constitutional government, France had been regressing under the control of a corrupt and cruel aristocracy. Radical French philosophers had been opposing, the actual misery of the peasants, who had the right to liberty, life, and happiness. At last in 1789 the people, joined hands with lawyers and thinkers of the middle class, to fight against their oppressors, and after three years established a republic. The outbreak of the Revolution was welcomed by English liberals as an era of social justice; but as it grew in violence and was aimed at all monarchy and of religion, their attitude changed. In 1793 the French king and queen were executed and a Reign of Terror was unleashed. This united all, except the radicals, in support of the war against France, in which England joined with the other European countries The last great prose-writer of the eighteenth century, Edmund Burke, saw  French Revolution as a breaking down of stable system, of what he held to be the secure foundations of society--established government, law, social distinctions, and religion.  Moreover, the activity of the English supporters of the French revolutionists, seriously threatened, an outbreak of anarchy in England also. Burke, therefore, began to oppose the whole movement, with all the eloquence of his writing .His 'Reflections on the Revolution in France,' published in 1790, though very one-sided, is a most powerful model of reason and brilliant eloquence. It had a wide influence and had the great majority of his countrymen agreeing with his viewpoint. During the twenty years of struggle that followed, Napoleon soon appeared in France, and to oppose and finally to suppress him was a task jointly taken up by all Englishmen devoted to their country and to humanity.

Etymology: Romanticism comes from the adjective “Romantic” used in the 17th century to indicate unrealistic things. In the 18th century it acquired a meaning of reason and rational, connected to, knowledge of supernatural.. The main themes of this period are: Individual relation between Man and Nature, a return to 'natural' nature, sympathy for and idealization of the humble life, sympathy for the rural life and pastoral settings. It was to use Imagination, as a way to escape, from the real world, symbolism and mysticism as the qualities of Romanticism, a sentimental contemplation for life and for relationships. The poet is looked at as an artist, as an original creator. The Romantic poets wrote poetry, that expresses a feeling of sadness and longing for remembered things of the past. The poet looks at the experiences, through introspection and sadness. They feel that, a natural genius would be, free from any neo-classical rules So, the romantic age in English literature, was characterized by, the subordination of reason, to intuition and passion. They believed in the supremacy of nature, the importance of the individual will over social norms of behavior, the preference for the illusion of immediate experience, as opposed to generalized and typical experience, and the interest in what is distant in time and place.

The periods We usually divided the Romantic poets in three different generations: The Early Romantic poets were: Thomas Chatterton (1752 - 1770) Robert Burns (1759 - 1796) William Blake (1757 - 1827) The First generation They are: William Wordsworth (1770 - 1850) Samuel T. Coleridge (1772 - 1834) The second generation poets  were: Lord Byron (1788 - 1824) Percy B. Shelley (1792 - 1822) John Keats (1795 - 1821) Important events were: In 1798 Wordsworth and Coleridge published “The Lyrical Ballads”, (1798 and 1800), 

WILLIAM WORDSWORTH (1770-1850).

Wordsworth is the chief representative of the Romantic Movement; He belongs among the five or six greatest English poets. W.. Wordsworth  was born in Cocker mouth, near Lake District, and in the peace and the beauty of this country, he found inspiration for his poetry. In the preface to the lyrical ballads Wordsworth described Romanticism as the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings which takes its origin from emotion recollected in tranquility” He asserted that poetry should express, in genuine language, experience as filtered through personal emotion and imagination; the truest experience was to be found in nature.

He chooses themes of nature .He looks upon nature as friend, philosopher and guide. First of all he is the profoundest interpreter of Nature in all poetry. For him Nature is a direct manifestation of the Divine Power, which seems to him to be everywhere and invisibly present in nature. He feels communion with her. The communion, into which he enters, as he walks and meditates, among the mountains and moors, is to him communion with God. To Wordsworth Nature is man's one great and sufficient teacher. The concept of the Sublime would make man turn towards nature, because in wild countryside, the power of the sublime could be felt most immediately. Through his supreme poetic expression, some of the greatest spiritual ideals of his mind are expressed.

He describes poet as a man with lively sensibility, enthusiasm, knowledge of human nature, passions and sympathy, speaking to men. He says the best language to describe and the theme to be used was, to choose incidents and situations from common life, in language really used by men and add colouring of imagination. Low and rustic life was generally chosen, because in that condition, the essential passions of the heart find a suitable language.

The variety of Wordsworth's poetry deserves special mention. In addition to his short lyric and narrative poems of Nature and the spiritual life, several kinds of poems stand out distinctly. A very few poems, the noble 'Ode to Duty,' 'Laodamia,' and 'Dion,' are classical in inspiration and show the classic style. His works are: “The Prelude”; “Poems in two volumes”; “The excursion”. . Wordsworth's romanticism is probably most fully realized in his great autobiographical poem, “The Prelude” (1805–50).  Among his many hundreds of sonnets is a very notable group inspired by the struggle of England against Napoleon. Nature and religion in 'Lines composed above Tintern Abbey' are the noblest expressions in literature. Wordsworth was the first English poet after Milton, who used the sonnet powerfully and he proves himself a worthy successor of Milton. The great bulk of his work, finally, is made up of his long poems in blank-verse. 'The Prelude,' written during the years 1799-1805, though not published until after his death, is the record of the development of his poet's mind .It is not an outwardly stirring poem, but a unique and invaluable piece of spiritual autobiography 

SAMUEL TAYLOR COLERIDGE.

The poets Wordsworth and Coleridge are of special interest not only from the primary fact that they are among the greatest of English authors, but also of their close personal association, which contrasts the supporting qualities of Romantic Movement. They exhibited contrasting qualities such as the delight in wonder and mystery (Coleridge) and the belief in the simple and quiet forces, both of human life and of Nature (Wordsworth),

Coleridge, who was slightly the younger of the two, possesses high genius but largely restrained by circumstances and weakness of will.  Coleridge's genius suddenly expanded into short-lived and wonderful activity and he wrote most of his few great poems, 'The Ancient Mariner,' 'Kubla Khan,' and the First Part of 'Christabel.' 'The Ancient Mariner' was planned by Coleridge and Wordsworth on one of their frequent rambles mingle with them and there followed the memorable year of intellectual and emotional stimulus, Wordsworth found his manner so different from that of Coleridge that he withdrew altogether from the undertaking. The final result of the incident, however, was the publication in 1798 of 'Lyrical Ballads,' which included of Coleridge's work only this one poem, but of Wordsworth's several of his most characteristic ones. Coleridge afterwards explained that the plan of the volume contemplated two complementary sorts of poems. He was to present supernatural or romantic characters, yet investing them with human interest and resemblance to truth; while Wordsworth was to add the charm of novelty to everyday things and to suggest their relationship to the supernatural, awaking readers, from their accustomed blindness, to the loveliness and wonders of the world around us. No better description could be given of the poetic spirit and the whole poetic work of the two men. Like some other epoch-marking books, 'Lyrical Ballads' attracted little attention.

In ‘Lyrical ballads’, a landmark in literary history, William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge presented and released a liberating force in poetry. Writing in search of these sublime moments, other romantic poets wrote about the marvelous and supernatural, the exotic, and the medieval. But they also found beauty, in the lives of simple rural people and aspects of the everyday world.

The second generation of romantic poets included John Keats, Percy Bysshe Shelley, and George Gordon, Lord Byron. In Keats's great odes, intellectual and emotional sensibility merges in language of great power and beauty. Shelley, who combined lyricism with political vision, searched and used more extreme effects and occasionally achieved them, as in his great drama Prometheus  Unbound (1820). His wife, Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley, wrote the greatest of the Gothic romances, Frankenstein (1818).

Lord Byron was the romantic hero, the envy and scandal of the age. He has been continually identified with his own characters, particularly the rebellious hero. Byron skillfully combined the romantic lyric with a rationalist irony. Minor romantic poets include Robert Southey—best-remembered today for his story “Goldilocks and the Three Bears”—Leigh Hunt, Thomas Moore, and Walter Savage Landor.

Milton was one of the Romanticists, who in poetic form, did not completely break away from the pentameter couplet but returned to many other meters. Milton was their chief master, and his example led to the revival of blank verse and of the octo-syllabic couplet. There was also inclination towards Spenserian stanza, and development of a great variety of lyric stanza forms. This characteristic appears in the minor poet of same generation such Thomas Grey.

Thomas Grey was a one of the leaders of the Romantic Movement. He was a scholar and a learned man, well versed in the literature and history of ancient and modern nations of Europe .Even though the bulk of Gray's poetry is very small, it has considerable variety. His low literary output is due to his unwillingness to write except at his best, or to publish until he had subjected his work to repeated revisions, which sometimes, as in the case of his 'Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard,' extended over many years. His poems contain the mingling of the true classic, pseudo-classic, and romantic elements in the poems, though less in the 'Elegy,' He is the extreme type of the academic poet. His work shows, however, considerable variety, including real appreciation for Nature, as in the 'Ode on the Spring,' delightful quiet humor, as in the 'Ode on a Favorite Cat,' rather conventional moralizing, as in the 'Ode on a Distant Prospect of Eton College,' magnificent expression of the fundamental human emotions, as in the 'Elegy,' and warlike vigor in the 'Norse Ode' translated from the 'Poetic Edda'

There is Oliver Goldsmith, who is more romantic in his works. In, 1764 was published Goldsmith's descriptive poem, 'The Traveler,' based on his own experiences in Europe. Six years later it was followed by 'The Deserted Village,' which was well received. Satire. In the choice of the rimed couplet for 'The Traveler' and 'The Deserted Village' the influence of pseudo-classicism and of Johnson appears; but Goldsmith's treatment of the form, with his variety in pauses and his simple but passionate  eloquence, make it a very different thing from the rimed couplet of either Johnson or Pope.

William Cowper is clearly a transition poet and not a thoroughbred romantic poet. He shares some of the main romantic impulses but in his thought and expression, to a great extent, he is pseudo-classical. He can be credited with praise for producing with John Newton, their joint collection of 'Olney Hymns,' many of which deservedly remain among the most popular in our church song-books.. The bulk of his work consists of long moralizing poems,. Some of them are in the rimed couplet and others in blank verse. His blank-verse translation of Homer, published in 1791, is more notable, and 'Alexander Selkirk' and the humorous doggerel 'John Gilpin' are famous; but his most significant poems are a few lyrics and descriptive pieces in which he speaks out his deepest feelings sadness. His poems 'On the Receipt of My Mother's Picture' and 'To Mary') which displays his deepest expression of sadness, is unsurpassed and 'The Castaway' is a song of religious despair.

William Blake (1757-1827) was one of the extreme romanticists. For him the material world was as real as his real world The bulk of his writing consists of a series of 'prophetic books' in verse and prose, works, in part, of genius, but of unbalanced genius, and virtually unintelligible. His lyric poems, some of them composed when he was no more than thirteen years old, are of high quality... One of their commonest quality is the mysterious joy and beauty of the world, a delight sometimes touched, it is true, as in 'The Tiger,' with a mature consciousness of the wonderful and terrible power behind all the beauty. Blake did not like the shutting up of children in school away from the happy life of out-of-doors. These are the chief sentiments of 'Songs of Innocence.' In 'Songs of Experience' he talks about the necessary situations that have to be endured in the world.

Robert Burns is by nature is deeply romantic. He does not belong to any group. He led a life of hardship. 'His genius, however, like his exuberant spirit, could not be crushed out. His mother had familiarized him from the beginning with the songs and ballads of which the country was full, and though he is said at first to have had so little ear for music that he could scarcely distinguish one tune from another, he soon began to compose songs (words) of his own as he followed the plough.. He is only the last of a long succession of rural Scottish song-writers; he composed his own songs to accompany popular airs; and many of them are directly based on fragments of earlier songs. None the less his work rises immeasurably above all that had gone before it.

Burns' place among poets is perfectly clear. It is chiefly that of a song-writer, perhaps the greatest songwriter of the world. At work in the fields or in his garret or kitchen after the long day's work was done, he composed songs because he could not help it, because his emotion was irresistibly stirred by the beauty and life of the birds and flowers, the snatch of a melody which kept running through his mind, or the memory of the girl with whom he had last talked. And his feelings expressed themselves with spontaneous simplicity, genuineness, and ease. He is a thoroughly romantic poet, though wholly by the grace of nature, not at all from any conscious intention--he wrote as the inspiration moved him, not in accordance with any theory of art.

The range of his subjects and emotions is nearly on topics such as: married affection, as in 'John Anderson, My Jo'; reflective sentiment; feeling for nature; sympathy with animals; vigorous patriotism, deep tragedy and pathos; instinctive happiness; delightful humor; and  others. It should be clearly recognized, however, that this achievement, supreme as it is in its own way, does not suffice to place Burns among the greatest poets.. Burns' significant production, also, is not altogether limited to songs. 'The Cotter's Saturday Night' (in Spenser's stanza) is one of the perfect descriptive poems of lyrical sentiment; and some of Burns' meditative poems and poetical epistles to acquaintances are delightful in a free-and-easy fashion. The exuberant power in the religious satires is undeniable.

Percy Bysshe Shelley (1792-1832).

 His poetic quality was a delicate and his exquisite lyricism unsurpassed in the literature of the world. In both his life and his poetry his visionary and reforming zeal and his superb lyric instinct are in close relation. The finest of Shelley's poems, are his lyrics. 'The Skylark' and 'The Cloud' are among the most sparkling and unique of all outbursts of poetic genius. Of the 'Ode to the West Wind,' a succession of strong emotions and visions of beauty swept, as if by the wind itself, through the vast spaces of the world, The poet Swinburne exclaims: 'It is beyond and outside and above all criticism, all praise, and all thanksgiving.' The 'Lines Written among the Euganean Hills,' 'The Indian Serenade,' 'The Sensitive Plant' (a brief narrative), 'Adonais,'  and not a few others are also of the highest quality. In an elegy on Keats is the finest. Much less satisfactory but still fascinating are the longer poems, narrative or philosophical, such as the early 'Alastor,' a vague allegory of a poet's quest for the beautiful through a gorgeous and unclear succession of romantic imagination. The 'Hymn to Intellectual Beauty'; 'Julian and Maddalo,' in which Shelley and Byron (Maddalo) are portrayed; and 'Epipsychidion,' an ecstatic poem on the love which is of spiritual quality. Some of Shelley's shorter poems are purely poetic expressions of poetic emotion,

JOHN KEATS (1795-1821).

The third member of the group, John Keats’ poem is as individual and unique as the poetry of Byron and Shelley’s. It is in a wholesome way, the most conspicuous great representative in English poetry, since Chaucer of the spirit of 'Art for Art's sake.' Keats' first little volume of verse, published in 1817, when he was twenty-one,-contained some delightful poems and clearly displayed most of his chief qualities. It was followed the next year by his longest poem, 'Endymion,' where he uses, one of the vaguely beautiful Greek myths as the basis for the expression of his own delight in the glory of the world and of youthful sensations. his third and last volume, published in 1820, and including 'The Eve of St. Agnes,' 'Isabella,' 'Lamia,' the fragmentary 'Hyperion,' and his half dozen great odes, probably contains more poetry of the highest order than any other book of original verse Almost all of Keats' poems are exquisite and luxuriant in their embodiment of sensuous beauty, but 'The Eve of St. Agnes,' in Spenser's richly lingering stanza, must be especially mentioned.

Lord Byron ( 1788-1824). Byron (George Gordon Byron) expresses mainly the spirit of individual revolt, revolt against all existing institutions and standards. This was largely a matter of his own personal temperament, but the influence of the time also had a share in it, 'Childe Harold' is the best of all Byron's works, though the third and fourth cantos, published some years later, and dealing with Belgium, the battle of Waterloo, and central Europe, are superior to the first two. Its excellence consists chiefly in the fact that while it is primarily a descriptive poem, its pictures are dramatically vivid in themselves

The Restoration and the Eighteenth Century: 1660-1700

Introduction and Historical Background:

England was torn by insecurity. The England to which Charles Stuart returned in1660 was a nation opposed against itself. It was utterly spent by twenty years of civil wars and revolution. Early in Charles’s rule, the people were struck down by two frightful calamities, the plague of 1665, which carried off over seventy thousand souls in London alone, and in September 1666, a fire that raged for four days destroyed a large part of the City (more than thirteen thousand houses), leaving about two-thirds of the population homeless. Yet the nation rose from its ashes, in the century that followed, to become an empire. The Glorious Revolution of 1688-89 established a rule of law and the Act of Union of 1707, a political alliance, under which England was transformed into Great Britain in fact as well as name—a large country to which people of widely differing backgrounds and origins felt they owed allegiance.

The restoration period and seventeenth century extends from 1660, the year Charles II was restored to the throne, until about 1789.The poetic inspiration or what today might be called imagination, was the most important characteristic of this period. Many scholars think of it as, properly. three distinct literary eras: the Restoration (1660-1700), dominated by Dryden; the Age of Satire (1700-1745), dominated by Swift and Pope; and the Age of Johnson (1745-1790), dominated not only by Johnson but by a new kind of poetry and a major new literary form, the novel. In the era of the Restoration, Dryden’s occasional verse, comedy, blank verse tragedy, heroic play, ode, satire, translation, and critical essay and both his example and his precepts had great influence.  In the Age of Satire, the literature is chiefly a literature of wit, concerned with civilization and social relationships, and consequently, it is critical and in some degree moral or satiric. Some of the finest works of this period are mock heroic or humorous burlesques of serious classic or modern modes. The era also brought in   Mock-Heroic/Mock Epic—A poem in Epic form and manner. ludicrously elevating some trivial subject to epic grandeur, juxtaposing high/grand style and subject, to make fun of somebody or something The eighteenth-century poetic language lays stress on visualizing or personifying ideas or concepts as if they see what they write about.  

This period saw great poetic output in the inspired conceptions of Donne, his school of metaphysical poets, Shakespeare, and Milton, Ben Jonson and his school of disciples. They had developed their own poetic styles though constrained by the formal and conventional styles of their period. Even then the succeeding generations rebelled against their imaginative flights and startling styles. On the other hand there was vast admiration for the effortless poetic creation, good taste and moderation, the using of Greek and Latin classics as models.

The literature of this period benefited by the restoration of Charles II to the throne as the literary outputs were infused by good taste, moderation, reason and simplicity. The learned classes drew parallel between restored English monarchy and the imperial Rome. Their appreciation of the literature of the time of the Roman emperor Augustus led to a widespread acceptance of the new English literature and encouraged a grand style and tone in the poetry of the period, the later phase of which is often referred to as Augustan. At this time was established Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge, which influenced the development of clear and simple prose. This further brought in, reason and easier communication of ides through prose and poetic creations.

Outline of the eighteenth century:

Political Conditions:

This century saw a close connection between politics and literature. This period saw the continuation of the practical spirit of the previous generation. The Stuart restoration, the restoring of monarchy which brought Charles II to the throne, was followed by an immense change in the general spirit of the people. The Restoration was notable for a relaxation of the strict Puritan morality of the previous decades. Theatre, sports, and dancing were revived. A reaction against the Puritanism and its principles had set in.

Socially   England was in its lowest spirits. The court of King Charles was steeped in corruption. While Charles was enjoying his new court, The moral ideals of Puritanism was turned into joke. Even outside the confines of the court, corruption had spread far and wide. The general lowering of moral ideal was very visible

Charles II was succeeded by his brother James II (1685-88). James was a Catholic, and he made several awkward attempts to re-establish the rights of Catholics, Popular opinion grew against James after a son was born to him, raising the prospect of a Catholic dynasty. Parliament extended an invitation to the firmly Protestant William and Mary of Orange (modern Holland) to take the English throne. James fled to France .William and Mary (1689-1702) ruled England jointly. Parliament ensured that they would never again have to deal with the like of James, by passing the 1689 Bill of Rights, which prohibited Catholics from ruling William outlived Mary, and he was followed by the second daughter of James II, Queen Anne (1702-14)

When Queen Anne was without any heirs, the English throne was offered to her nearest Protestant relative, George of Hanover, who thus became George I of England. Throughout the long reign of George, his son, and grandson, all named George, the very nature of English society and the political face of the realm changed. In part this was because the first two Georges, took little interest in the politics of rule, and were quite content to let ministers rule on their behalf. These ministers, representatives of the king, or Prime Ministers, rather enjoyed ruling.

Social conditions during the 17th century were very bad. Laws were harsh, and religious discrimination was common. The effect of these on the literature of the period was as anticipated, as literature is the product of the social era and reflects what it sees. The literature of this age was openly corrupt It had no spiritual or moral spirit in it. There was no purpose, passion, or creative energy. Literature had ceased to be lofty and had become common and vulgar. The poetry had become prosaic and was judged by the standards of prose. The poet did not go into fairyland of his imagination. He made poem the medium of argument. The era of versified pamphlet had begun.

The general spirit of the period:

The writers of the reigns of Anne and George I called their period the Augustan Age, because they believed that with them English life and literature had reached a high point of civilization comparable to that which existed at Rome under the Emperor Augustus. They believed that both in the art of living and in literature they had rediscovered and the principles of the best periods of Greek and Roman life This is because  the qualities of the classical spirit, were largely misunderstood, and thinking to reproduce them produced  only a superficial, pseudo-classical, imitation.

The main characteristics of the period can be briefly summed up as given:  There was greater focus on the practical well-being of society or of one's own class. They did not give high appreciation to nature but was all praise for formal art. In creative thought and expression, they had high regard for abstractness. They firmly believed that ancients had attained perfection in literature. They held in high regard Latin and Greek poets. This gave rise to artificiality and a strong tendency to moralize. Although the 'Augustan Age' must be considered to end before the middle of the century, the same spirit continued   among many writers until the end, so that almost the whole of the century may be called the period of pseudo-classicism.

The period between 1660 and 1785 was a time of amazing expansion for England — or for "Great Britain," as the nation came to be called after an Act of Union in 1707 joined Scotland to England and Wales. Britain became a world power, an empire on which the sun never set. But it also changed internally. The world seemed different in 1785. A sense of new, expanding possibilities — as well as modern problems — transformed the daily life of the British people, and offered them fresh ways of thinking about their relations to nature and to each other. Hence literature had to adapt to circumstances for which there was no precedent.. The sense that everything was changing was also sparked by a revolution in science. The microscope and telescope opened new fields of vision. The authority of Aristotle and Ptolemy was broken; their systems could not explain what Galileo and Kepler saw in the heavens. Many later writers found the new science inspiring. It gave them new images to conjure with and new possibilities of fact and fiction to explore. As discoveries multiplied, it became clear that the moderns knew things of which the ancients had been ignorant The trade and conquests that made European powers like Spain and Portugal immensely rich also brought the scourge of racism and colonial exploitation. In the eighteenth century,

John Dryden (1631-1700):

Dryden, called as, the greatest man of a little age, was the one complete representative of this period. We must not forget his elders, Edmund Waller and Sir John Denham who were pioneers of the so called classic school of poetry against the excesses of the metaphysical school of thought. and in favor of good sense, neatness and clearness of expression. They reformed English versification at a time it had become harsh. Waller especially brought into effect the classic couplet. Dryden’s poetry is representative of his age. It is restrained in imaginative power, depth of feeling, spiritual glow, but has intellect and style .It is highly eloquent. It was Dryden’s effort and example which gave heroic couplet the important place it has in English poetry.

Dryden as a poet, ripened very slowly. His first poem, an elegy on the death of young Lord Hastings, written at eighteen, was not very creative. His reputation rests primarily on satires. ‘Absalom and Achitophel ‘(1681-1682) and’ Mac Flecknoe’ (1682) are the most remarkable of Dryden's political satires. Among his other poetic works are noteworthy translations of Roman satirists and of the works of Virgil and the Pindaric ode “Alexander's Feast,” which was published in 1697. The poetry of John Dryden possesses force, and fullness of tone. At the same time, his poetry sets a tone of moderation and good taste. His polished, heroic couplet (a unit of two rhyming lines of iambic pentameter)( which he inherited from his predecessors and which he developed,) became the dominant form, in the composition of his longer poems.

In his poems are found stylistic restraint, compression, clarity, and common sense that is lacking in much of the poetry of the preceding age, particularly in the mechanically complex metaphorical wit of the older metaphysical school.. The bulk of Dryden's work was in prose. Dryden's poetry defined the tone of his time, Dryden’s poetry alike in its merits and demerits, is thoroughly representative of his age. As a whole it is marked by a general want of  poetic qualities. It has little imaginative power, little depth of feeling, little spiritual passion, and does not touch high lyrical heights except for ‘ Alexander’s feast’ and ‘To the memory of Mrs. Anne Killigrew’.On the other hand it is distinctive in its intellectuality and vigor of style. He gives us passages of eloquence and style though seldom poetic. It is easy to see he holds stronger place as a satirist.

Alexander Pope (1688-1744):

The chief representative of pseudo-classicism in   poetry is Dryden's successor, Alexander Pope. Pope was born in 1688 (just a hundred years before Byron), He had to endure hardship, as he was born with deformed and dwarfed body and an incurably sickly constitution, which carried with it abnormal sensitiveness of both nerves and mind.  He was a poet who was predestined to be one. He never had any formal training. He read voraciously as he was hungry for knowledge. The earlier influences were of amateur poet and critic, William Walsh who declared that England had had great poets, 'but never one great poet that was correct' (that is of thoroughly regular style). Pope accepted this hint as his guiding principle and proceeded to seek correctness by giving still further polish to the pentameter couplet of Dryden. Pope went on to publish poems at the age of twenty-one He wrote 'Essay on Criticism two years later. Just like Dryden, pope’s works are representative of his period and in pope’s case, of his own nature.   pope used couplet with ease. His essay on criticism is excellent but in his poetry he uses subjects not suitable for poetry, and also materials that were imitations and not original. .Pope was noted for his brilliant essay and further increased his popularity by the noteworthy mock-epic ‘The rape of the lock’. It takes on a silly drawing-room episode of snipping off a lock of lady’s hair into the theme of epic. His satire ’Dunciad ‘is well received. It is malicious as it mocks pope’s enemies as dull-heads...Pope had correctness of reason but not the expressive force   or spontaneous force of a genius. He polished and re-polished his poetic works. Pope put into good use, heroic couplet which he had brought to perfection. Pope took on the task of translating ‘The Iliad’ and ‘The Odyssey’ Pope’s popularity rests on his satires but he took on the task of writing his essays in verse. Like Dryden, Pope made translations of classical works, notably of the Iliad, which was a great popular and financial success. His edition of Shakespeare's works bears witness to a range of taste not usually ascribed to him.

Pope's physical disabilities brought him to premature old age, and he died in 1744. The question of Pope's rank among authors is of central importance for any theory of poetry. In his own age he was definitely regarded by his supporters as the greatest of all English poets of all time. He may not be in the same genre as Milton, Wordsworth, Shelly or Browning. He is master in satire forms and epigrams, the concise statements. His quotations in his poems are not easily forgotten. He used rimed couplet which he had borrowed from Dryden and which he had polished to greater finish. He used his rimed couplet to great advantage. . He chooses every word with the greatest care for its value as both sound and sense As the pseudo-classic spirit yielded to the romantic this judgment was modified, until in the nineteenth century it was rather popular to deny that in any true sense Pope was a poet at all. Of course the truth lies somewhere between these extremes. Into the highest region of poetry, that of great emotion and imagination, Pope scarcely enters at all.

The Restoration of the monarchy in 1660 brought hope to a nation divided by religious strife. The long reign of George III (1760-1820) saw Britain issuing forth as a colonial power. It also witnessed the desire of the people for a social order based on liberty.  The wealth brought to England by Industrialism and foreign trade had brought wealth to England but it had not reached the poor. Effects of Industrialization, (1700 – 1850) was felt deeply.

Industrialization began in Britain since there was a large supply of coal and steel and it was seen as one of the greatest colonial powers, thus allowing it to gain the capital and market needed to industrialize. Industrialization occurred in many countries, each taking a different approach to the implementation of new machinery and technology. The most notable for leading the way in industrialization is Britain. Industrialization not only made dramatic changes in the economic structure of countries but also in the social and political areas of countries. Pre-industrialization, people were based mainly in rural areas. However, when the enclosure of land became popular in the 1760’s, farmers who were tenants began to be pushed off the land. This along with the establishment of new urban towns and cities meant that people started to move away resulting in ‘English peasant villages being destroyed’. Industrialization led to much upheaval; especially socially since the whole spirit of life was affected. One of the social effects that industrialization had was that the ‘rhythm of life changed. There was growing divide between classes of rich and poor.. The emergence of the working class and the growing divide between classes also meant that a new political and economic structure was in the process of being developed. It led to the establishment of capitalism. 

Following the Restoration, French and Italian musicians, as well as painters from the Low Countries, migrated to England, giving rise to a revolution in aesthetic tastes. The literature appearing between 1660 and 1785 divides conveniently into three lesser periods of about forty years each. 

The first, extending to the death of Dryden in 1700 is characterized by an effort to bring a new refinement to English literature according to sound critical principles of what is fine and right.  Poetry and prose come to be characterized by an easy, sociable style, while in the theater comedy is triumphant. 

Summary:

The Restoration of the monarchy in 1660 brought hope to a divided nation, but no political settlement could be stable until religious issues had been resolved. The Restoration and the eighteenth century brought vast changes to the island of Great Britain, which became a single nation after 1707.

The long reign of George III (1760-1820) saw both the emergence of Britain as a colonial power and the cry for a new social order based on liberty and radical reform.  The widespread devotion to direct observation of experience established empiricism, as employed by John Locke, as the dominant intellectual attitude of the age. Publishing boomed in eighteenth-century Britain, in part because of a loosening of legal restraints on printing.

The second period, ending with the deaths of Pope in 1744 and Swift in 1745, reaches out to a wider circle of readers; with special satirical attention to what is unfitting and wrong.  Deeply conservative but lighter, the finest works of this brilliant generation of writers use myths and forms.

The third period, concluding with the death of Johnson in 1784 publication, confronts the old principles with revolutionary ideas that would come to the fore in the Romantic period.  A respect for the good judgment of ordinary people, and for standards of taste and behavior independent of social status, marks many writers of the age. Throughout the larger period, what poets most tried to see and represent was nature, understood as the universal and permanent elements in human experience. The successive stages of literary taste during the period of the Restoration and the 18th century are conveniently referred to as the ages of Dryden, Pope, and Johnson, after the three great literary figures that, one after another, carried on the so-called classical tradition in literature. The age as a whole is sometimes called the Augustan age, or the classical or neoclassical period.

The Seventeenth Century (1603-1660) and Metaphysical Poetry:

General Introduction and Historical Background:

The beginning of the 17th century as whole was more relaxed when compared to Elizabethan age as the renaissance enthusiasm had spent itself. There was also a great divide in the minds of the people regarding religious or political matters. There was uncertainty about the future of oneself or one’s country. The earlier spirit of adventure was missing in the people. As far as literature output was concerned, it did not decrease but it had lost its vigor and creativity as it had spread itself thin over wider fields. Before the end of Elizabeth’s rule there had been a change in the spirit of the century. As the queen grew old her nation also seemed to lose its youth and vigor. After Elizabeth James I succeeded her to the throne.

The last decade of the 16th century presents a new kind of poetry with John Donne (1573-1631) whose work belongs to the period of James, though he was 30 years old when he died. In spirit Donne belongs less to the Elizabethan poetry and more to the period of James. Hence we can say the major poets of the early 17th century were john Donne and other metaphysical poets. The early seventeenth century extends from the accession of the first Stuart king (James I) in 1603 to the coronation of the third (Charles II) in 1660.The events that happened between these two historical dates can  bring clarity and give a complete understanding if viewed as a larger picture. It is true that between these two important dates, greater social and political events occurred to shadow the two monarchical rule of the sixteenth century and the eighteenth century The early seventeenth century felt a deep sense of dissatisfaction and challenge in the literary sphere. As a reaction we see the poetry of Donne and his school. We see the fusion of intellect and feeling in Donne and his metaphysical poets

At the same time we cannot forget the important influence of the Puritan Revolt of 1640-60 which brought in secular stability to the country of England. The century together with the English Revolution was a time of intense turmoil in all areas of life —religion, science, politics, domestic relations, culture. That turmoil was reflected in the literature of the era, which also registered a heightened focus on and analysis of the self and the personal life. However, little of this seems in evidence in Michael Drayton's long "chorographical" poem on the landscape, regions, and local history of Great Britain (1612), which appeared in the first years of the reign of the Stuart king James I (1603-1625). The great seventeenth-century heroic poem, ’Paradise lost’, treats the Fall of Man and its tragic consequences.

The century saw the emergence of important issues such as: "Gender, Family, and Household. “Seventeenth-Century Norms and Controversies" provides important religious, legal, and domestic advice. It helps clarify cultural assumptions about gender roles and the patriarchal family, through texts and illustrations. It also invites attention to, how those assumptions are modified or challenged in the practices of actual families and households. It also throws lights on various gender issues such as women speaking in church, divorce, women's worth, talents, and rights; and especially in the upheavals of the English Revolution. The period also saw the great work of Milton “Paradise lost”

The great epic forces the readers to examine how it utilizes and interprets the Genesis story, how it uses classical myth, how it challenges orthodox ideas of innocence, and how it is positioned within but also against the epic tradition from Homer to Virgil. The most important thoughts that occupied the people’s mind and forced them to think were on politics, religion and culture. It provides an opportunity to explore some of the issues and conflicts that led to civil war and the overthrow of monarchical government (1642-60). The highlight to all this was the highly dramatic trial and execution of King Charles I (January 1649),

Outline of seventeenth century:

James I. Elizabeth was followed to the throne by James VI of Scotland, who became James I of England. James believed in the absolute power of the monarchy, and he had a unstable relationship with an increasingly demanding

Parliament .Her successor James I of England was a bigot. Under his rule the court corruption increased. During James' reign radical Protestant groups called Puritans began to gain a sizeable following. Puritans wanted to "purify" the church by bringing down church ritual, educating the clergy, and limiting the powers of bishops. The nation found itself divided into two factions .One the one hand there were cavaliers, courtiers ,nobles, the church and on the other hand the puritans comprising the large number of middle class controlled by the religious principles of reformation. The puritans advocated strict views on life and conduct. The gulf widened. Puritanism emerged as a great national power. Puritanism became a great moral, political and religious force. The upper class had the sympathies of serious men of society and thus increased its social and moral influence.

Political and religious tensions intensified under James’s son, Charles I, who succeeded to the throne in 1625. Parliament made increasing demands, which the king refused to meet. Neither side was willing to budge. Finally in 1642 fighting broke out. The English Civil War (1642-1646) divided society largely along class lines. Parliament drew most of its support from the middle classes, while the king was supported by the nobility, the clergy, and the peasantry. When King Charles tried to encroach upon the civil rights of the people, a great conflict broke out. In 1642 under the rule of Charles I civil war broke out.

The civil war officially ended in 1649 with the execution of Charles I. The period which follows is known as the Interregnum (from Latin), implying a "time between" kings, because there was no king during this time. For most of it, England was ruled by Oliver Cromwell as Lord Protector (a sort of dictator/president), and the government was styled, first, a Commonwealth, and then a Protectorate. In 1660 Parliament offered to restore the monarchy if Charles would agree to concessions for religious toleration and a general amnesty. Charles was not as hard-headed as his father, and he agreed to the proposals. Monarchy’ was restored in 1660, which we refer to as ‘The Restoration. He returned to London on a wave of popular support to be crowned Charles II (1660-85).  Less than two years after Cromwell's death; his son and followers simply couldn't muster the iron will or the personal and military power to keep the nation unified after his death.

The war and its consequences had tremendous effects on the literature of the day. Most of the writers in this period considered themselves "Cavaliers," that is, they supported the monarchy. But "Cavalier" implies more than just "Royalist" term for the troops and forces of the King, and later those who wanted to restore the monarchy). It implies, for instance, a particular class of man: Courtly, well-educated, and genteel.

The effect of Puritanism on the general English life and attitude was very deep. The spirit of Puritanism that was introduced was noble and fine but at the same time it was very rigid and stern. This brought about narrowness in its outlook. In its preoccupation with the moral and religious things it neglected science, art, knowledge and beauty which gave life value and happiness. Puritanism destroyed humane nature and tried to confine literature in its own field of particular interests. This restricted art as well as literature. It was a rare writer who would be able to rise beyond its narrow confines.

The absence of any sharp line of separation between the literature of the reign of Elizabeth and of those of James I and Charles I is very visible in poetry. In Milton we find the greatest writer, the product of Puritanism, in whose work is found moral and religious influences of Puritanism as well as free spirit of renaissance Milton is the greatest English poet. we find in him the wonderful combination of intellect and creative power, both at their highest. He is the most sublime of the English poets, the master of grand style. In his descriptive power and language he cannot be compared to anyone, he was superior. His subject matter had majesty of thought. His poems had beauty and style. . His life falls naturally into three periods: 1. Youth and preparation, 1608-1639, when he wrote his shorter poems. 2. Public life, 1639-1660, when he wrote, or at least published, in poetry, only a few sonnets. 3. Later years, 1660-1674, of outer defeat, but of chief poetic achievement, the period of 'Paradise Lost,' 'Paradise Regained,' and 'Samson Agonistes.'

Two short poems were written during his college days. Milton had planned to enter the ministry, but it was not possible because of circumstances around him. on leaving the University in 1632 he retired to the country estate  His poems 'L'Allegro' and 'Il Penseroso' describe the pleasures of suburban life viewed in moods  of light-hearted happiness and of reflection. His poem 'Comus,' the last of the Elizabethan and Jacobean masks, combines an exquisite poetic beauty' Lycidas' is one of the supreme English elegies; though the grief which helps to create its power sprang more from the recent death of the poet's mother than from that of the nominal subject, his college acquaintance, Edward King.

Milton's first period ends with an experience designed to complete his preparation for his career as a poet.He embarked on a fifteen months' tour in France and Italy, where the highest literary circles received him cordially. The twenty years which follow, the second period of Milton's career, developed and modified his nature and ideas in an unusual degree and fashion which helped in his poetic creativity, Milton stands out as a noble figure In the remaining fourteen years which make the third period of his life. His very obstinacy and egoism now enabled him to maintain his proud dignity in the middle of the lost cause of his support towards republic ,though he had by then become poor, lonely and blind.. The important fact of this last period, however, is that Milton now had the leisure to write, or to complete, 'Paradise Lost. In this purpose he was entirely successful. As a whole, by the consent of all competent judges, 'Paradise Lost' is worthy of its theme, perhaps the greatest that the mind of man can conceive, namely 'to justify the ways of God. ''Paradise Lost' was published in 1677. It was followed in 1671 by 'Paradise Regained,' only one-third as long and much less important; and by 'Samson Agonists.' The Metaphysical poets who followed Donne (such as Herbert, Crashaw, Vaughan, and Cowley) tried to reinforce the traditional lyric forms of love and devotion by stretching them to contain new and extreme intellectual forms. In the other direction, Jonson and his “disciples” the so-called Cavalier poets (such as Herrick, Suckling, Lovelace, Waller, and Denham) generally tried to compress and limit their poems, giving them a high polish and sense and in the process restraining the intellectual content.  The common contrast of Cavalier with Metaphysical does describe two poetic alternatives of the early century.  Yet both style were wholly inadequate to come up to the lofty style and high thinking of Milton. Metaphysical poetry was unconventional and uses such unconventional figures such as a compass or a mosquito to reach surprise effects .Donne uses material from unlikeliest sources, partly from the activities of everyday life, but especially from all the sciences and knowledge of his time. The material is abstract but Donne gives it poetic picture. Because of this quality Dr Johnson applied to Donne and his followers the term metaphysical poets.

In one of Donne’s poems, the point of a compass represents two lovers where the woman is waiting at home and the man being a wanderer is anchored by the woman. Separation makes the heart grow fonder. Donne possessed the keenest intellect and had genuine poetic feeling. He studied law and theology. In this period he wrote love as well as religious poems. The distinguishing feature of Donne’ poetry is the combination of intellect and feeling. Donne’s poetry attracts in a unique manner. By detailed elaboration and extreme exaggeration, Donne carries Elizabethan conceit to the extent possible.

Summary:

Elizabeth I died in 1603 after four decades of rule on the throne. James VI succeeded her to the throne. He had literary interests. Yet he supported strict theories of kingship and gave rise to corruption in his court. Political and religious tensions intensified under James’s son, Charles I, who succeeded to the throne in 1625.Charles tried to encroach upon the civil rights of the people. It intensified the already existing divide between the puritans who advocated strict views on life and conduct and the cavaliers (who were the supporters of the king), the church, the courtiers and the nobles. In 1642 civil war broke out. The conflict ended with the beheading of Charles in 1649.

Oliver Cromwell ruled England as the lord protector. He was as autocratic as Charles was. After ten years Charles’ son Charles II was invited home from exile. He ruled England as King from 1660-1685. These twenty-five year period brought about concepts such as separation between church and state, freedom of expression, freedom of press that would continue for centuries to come.

Early seventeenth century writers such as John Donne, George Herbert, Robert Herrick, Thomas Carew, and Andrew Marvel distinguished themselves as metaphysical poets. They were men of learning. Their thoughts are new but never natural. Their work is filled with affected writings, conceits, strained metaphors, far-fetched similes and the most exaggerated hyper-bole. They combine intellect with feeling. The civil war was not profitable to royal theatres, many of which closed down. The two best writers of this period Milton and Andrew Marvel supported the republic. On the restoration of monarchy, Milton was arrested. He was later released and allowed to live in political obscurity. He was by then blind, poor and lonely. Milton was bitterly disillusioned where revolution failed to realize his ideals.

History and Development of Poetry from Chaucer to the present time:

The Sixteenth century poets: Chaucer, Wyatt and Surrey, Sir Philip Sidney, Edmund Spenser

Introduction:

The period between medieval times and Chaucer is very important from the point of view of English language as well as literature. During this time English was slowly evolving out of the usage of different languages; Norman French and Anglo-Saxon English. The final outcome was a compound language .English was broken up into different dialects such as Northern English, Midland English and Southern English. It was that when Chaucer started writing, he chose Midland English as his medium of writing. We thus have Chaucer as our first of English poets, followed by Wyatt, Surrey, Sidney and Spenser. We also will be able to see their characteristic way of writing and their famous poetic works. Literary historians and critics feel that Chaucer is the father of English Literature.

Geoffrey Chaucer (1349-1400) was the greatest poet of the English literature of the 14th Century, born during the rule of Edward III, lived through the rule of Richard II. His life thus covers a period of social and political changes. It was also a period of English idea of a perfect life where everything around was perfect and a standard for imitation. Geoffrey Chaucer is by common consent the greatest English Medieval author. His popularity is timeless .He was different from his fellow poets in the sense he used rhyme.  There were a lot of English writings before English established itself strongly. Anglo-Saxon chronicles (record of events in order of occurrence) had many colorful passages in them which are of interest because of their story line. French and Latin verse chronicles were more popular.     

Chaucer began his poetic career by translating the popular French poem ‘Roman de la Rose’. This gave him the flexibility to use octosyllabic couplet, a language unit of eight syllables, usually a complete line of verse but occasionally just a word. He is also well versed in the art of story telling using allegory (narrative, using symbolic and abstract meaning) and psychology. The first of the poet’s gift is to feel, the second is to express. Chaucer possesses both of these gifts in equal measure. The point which the later poets note in him is not only his power of story telling, his tragedy, his humor, or his character drawing but also his language. Lydgate called him’’ The noble poet of Britain”

Chaucer is often hailed as ‘the morning star’ of English poetry .English did not enjoy a good status when compared with that of French and Italian poetry of the fourteenth century. Chaucer was inspired by the French and wrote in a language which was very intense. This English was the midland Dialect (form of speech special to particular region) of England which became fixed as literary language of England because of its vast artistic possibilities. He did not follow the earlier style of English versification which lacked the natural grace and music of English speech. This Midland dialect of English became the cultural language to correspond with the social and political developments of his country.

        

Chaucer also chose for his English poetry, subjects from common life around him and also characters from popular tales of his times .He did not take subjects from court life but chose those characters which were common such as carpenter, miller and prior who did not appeal to the fashionable audience of the court. His characters bring to life the ideals (the idea of what is supposed to be perfect) of his own age .His narrative poem the prologue to Canterbury Tales represents the cross section of English society. Here we have representatives from the clergy, the merchant and the warrior classes. Chaucer’s characters are types as well as individuals (we see them as imaginary characters but are also able to see them as people we can identify with in real life).Chaucer grew up among the last generations in England that used French as an official language. He has enriched English with borrowed words from any language that has come in his way.

It was from Italy that Renaissance came to England. Sir Thomas Wyatt (1503-42) let the renaissance into the English verse (poetry). He was a diplomat and was sent on many important missions to Italy and France. He brought from Italy  new poetic patterns popularized by Dante and Petrarch, the Italian poets. He introduced sonnets into English language. Sonnet is a poem of 14 lines He is called the father of English sonnets. He has written 32 sonnets which deal with Petrarchan love themes and are full of lyric grace and passion. Wyatt began the task of enlarging the scope (range) of English poetry. It was continued by his contemporary (the poet of his own time) Henry Howard, the Earl of Surrey. With Wyatt he was the co-founder of the English sonnet.

   

Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey (1517-47) is not such a prolific (producing large amounts of literary output) writer as Wyatt but his work is more varied in character. He wrote sonnets, lyrics, elegies, translations from the classics and other small poems in different measures. Though he uses sonnets he uses them in more natural style than Wyatt. In Surrey’s poems we find a love of nature which we do not easily find in Wyatt’s poems. His most important contribution to poetry apart from introduction of blank verse (unrhymed verse) and pastoral elegy (song of sorrow in a rural background) is the manner in which he has harmonized the measures introduced by Wyatt. The poetic effect of Wyatt and Surrey was felt only after their famous collection called ‘Tottel’s miscellany’ was brought out by a printer Richard Tottel in June 1557.This collection marks the beginning of modern English poetry. Renaissance attitudes influenced the literature of the Elizabethan period. Elizabeth came to the throne at a time when England was poor economically. She became a legend and won the hearts of the people. She encouraged art and Literature. The characteristic features of Elizabethan poetry are passion and an eye for beauty. Two poets who represent the best of Early Elizabethan poetry are Edmund Spenser (1552-1597) and his friend and patron Sir Philip Sidney. Sir Philip Sidney came from an aristocratic class and symbolized its values-taste, courtesy and culture. His poems are simple and delicate. His poems, sonnets do not contain any profound thoughts. Sometimes the poet’s expression is exaggerated but the emotion in it is genuine. He used sonnet as a medium to express his love. Sidney uses in his sonnets many expressions, metaphors, antitheses and much verbal elaboration. The structure is very compact. It is also noted for its note of simplicity. The poet’s passion is genuine but its expression is often exaggerated. Edmund Spenser symbolizes the beauty of renaissance. His period is filled with new learning of renaissance period. His poems are musical and filled with pictorial (words capable of evoking picture in the mind) quality. Spenser’s poems influenced other poems of the Elizabethan period. He influenced the poetry of Keats, Tennyson and W.B. Yeats .They followed his pictorial language. By now Elizabethan inspiration was declining. The subject matter of love was getting exhausted. There was a huge tendency to imitate the poets of their own age.  In such circumstances a new kind of poetry made its mark in a period when James ruled England after the death of Elizabeth.

Summary: Chaucer is considered the greatest poet of the 14th century. His appeal is not restricted only to the 14th century .His literary creations still retain their freshness as his characters are ordinary people from common life.  He used rhyming style in his poems. He made English language rich by adding new words that came his way. He popularized English language and made it the cultural language of England .He brought flexibility and conversational ease into his English poetry. Chaucer is praised as the morning star of English poetry. Sir Thomas Wyatt brought new verse techniques into English poetry from his travels abroad to Italy. He introduced sonnet, the 14 line poem into English language. He is called the father of English sonnets. Henry Howard the Earl of Surrey is the co-founder of sonnets with Thomas Wyatt. Their famous literary collection is brought out in the collection called Tottel’s Miscellany. The Elizabethan period was influenced by the attitudes of the Renaissance period. The two famous poets of the Elizabethan period are Edmund Spenser and his patron Sir Philip Sidney. Philip’s poems are simple and delicate without any deep thoughts in them .He uses sonnets to express his genuine feelings of love which seems exaggerated on the surface .Edmund Spenser brings out the beauty of Renaissance in his poems .His language is capable of creating images in our mind. His poems are full of music. His poems have influenced other poets of his time. So he deserves to be called a poet’s poet .Spenser was different from other poets in his treatment of love .He was greatly influenced by Chaucer and deserves to be called as the greatest poet next to Chaucer.

     

A reading list: On Indian Women Writers

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