The Restoration and the Eighteenth Century: 1660-1700

Introduction and Historical Background:

England was torn by insecurity. The England to which Charles Stuart returned in1660 was a nation opposed against itself. It was utterly spent by twenty years of civil wars and revolution. Early in Charles’s rule, the people were struck down by two frightful calamities, the plague of 1665, which carried off over seventy thousand souls in London alone, and in September 1666, a fire that raged for four days destroyed a large part of the City (more than thirteen thousand houses), leaving about two-thirds of the population homeless. Yet the nation rose from its ashes, in the century that followed, to become an empire. The Glorious Revolution of 1688-89 established a rule of law and the Act of Union of 1707, a political alliance, under which England was transformed into Great Britain in fact as well as name—a large country to which people of widely differing backgrounds and origins felt they owed allegiance.

The restoration period and seventeenth century extends from 1660, the year Charles II was restored to the throne, until about 1789.The poetic inspiration or what today might be called imagination, was the most important characteristic of this period. Many scholars think of it as, properly. three distinct literary eras: the Restoration (1660-1700), dominated by Dryden; the Age of Satire (1700-1745), dominated by Swift and Pope; and the Age of Johnson (1745-1790), dominated not only by Johnson but by a new kind of poetry and a major new literary form, the novel. In the era of the Restoration, Dryden’s occasional verse, comedy, blank verse tragedy, heroic play, ode, satire, translation, and critical essay and both his example and his precepts had great influence.  In the Age of Satire, the literature is chiefly a literature of wit, concerned with civilization and social relationships, and consequently, it is critical and in some degree moral or satiric. Some of the finest works of this period are mock heroic or humorous burlesques of serious classic or modern modes. The era also brought in   Mock-Heroic/Mock Epic—A poem in Epic form and manner. ludicrously elevating some trivial subject to epic grandeur, juxtaposing high/grand style and subject, to make fun of somebody or something The eighteenth-century poetic language lays stress on visualizing or personifying ideas or concepts as if they see what they write about.  

This period saw great poetic output in the inspired conceptions of Donne, his school of metaphysical poets, Shakespeare, and Milton, Ben Jonson and his school of disciples. They had developed their own poetic styles though constrained by the formal and conventional styles of their period. Even then the succeeding generations rebelled against their imaginative flights and startling styles. On the other hand there was vast admiration for the effortless poetic creation, good taste and moderation, the using of Greek and Latin classics as models.

The literature of this period benefited by the restoration of Charles II to the throne as the literary outputs were infused by good taste, moderation, reason and simplicity. The learned classes drew parallel between restored English monarchy and the imperial Rome. Their appreciation of the literature of the time of the Roman emperor Augustus led to a widespread acceptance of the new English literature and encouraged a grand style and tone in the poetry of the period, the later phase of which is often referred to as Augustan. At this time was established Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge, which influenced the development of clear and simple prose. This further brought in, reason and easier communication of ides through prose and poetic creations.

Outline of the eighteenth century:

Political Conditions:

This century saw a close connection between politics and literature. This period saw the continuation of the practical spirit of the previous generation. The Stuart restoration, the restoring of monarchy which brought Charles II to the throne, was followed by an immense change in the general spirit of the people. The Restoration was notable for a relaxation of the strict Puritan morality of the previous decades. Theatre, sports, and dancing were revived. A reaction against the Puritanism and its principles had set in.

Socially   England was in its lowest spirits. The court of King Charles was steeped in corruption. While Charles was enjoying his new court, The moral ideals of Puritanism was turned into joke. Even outside the confines of the court, corruption had spread far and wide. The general lowering of moral ideal was very visible

Charles II was succeeded by his brother James II (1685-88). James was a Catholic, and he made several awkward attempts to re-establish the rights of Catholics, Popular opinion grew against James after a son was born to him, raising the prospect of a Catholic dynasty. Parliament extended an invitation to the firmly Protestant William and Mary of Orange (modern Holland) to take the English throne. James fled to France .William and Mary (1689-1702) ruled England jointly. Parliament ensured that they would never again have to deal with the like of James, by passing the 1689 Bill of Rights, which prohibited Catholics from ruling William outlived Mary, and he was followed by the second daughter of James II, Queen Anne (1702-14)

When Queen Anne was without any heirs, the English throne was offered to her nearest Protestant relative, George of Hanover, who thus became George I of England. Throughout the long reign of George, his son, and grandson, all named George, the very nature of English society and the political face of the realm changed. In part this was because the first two Georges, took little interest in the politics of rule, and were quite content to let ministers rule on their behalf. These ministers, representatives of the king, or Prime Ministers, rather enjoyed ruling.

Social conditions during the 17th century were very bad. Laws were harsh, and religious discrimination was common. The effect of these on the literature of the period was as anticipated, as literature is the product of the social era and reflects what it sees. The literature of this age was openly corrupt It had no spiritual or moral spirit in it. There was no purpose, passion, or creative energy. Literature had ceased to be lofty and had become common and vulgar. The poetry had become prosaic and was judged by the standards of prose. The poet did not go into fairyland of his imagination. He made poem the medium of argument. The era of versified pamphlet had begun.

The general spirit of the period:

The writers of the reigns of Anne and George I called their period the Augustan Age, because they believed that with them English life and literature had reached a high point of civilization comparable to that which existed at Rome under the Emperor Augustus. They believed that both in the art of living and in literature they had rediscovered and the principles of the best periods of Greek and Roman life This is because  the qualities of the classical spirit, were largely misunderstood, and thinking to reproduce them produced  only a superficial, pseudo-classical, imitation.

The main characteristics of the period can be briefly summed up as given:  There was greater focus on the practical well-being of society or of one's own class. They did not give high appreciation to nature but was all praise for formal art. In creative thought and expression, they had high regard for abstractness. They firmly believed that ancients had attained perfection in literature. They held in high regard Latin and Greek poets. This gave rise to artificiality and a strong tendency to moralize. Although the 'Augustan Age' must be considered to end before the middle of the century, the same spirit continued   among many writers until the end, so that almost the whole of the century may be called the period of pseudo-classicism.

The period between 1660 and 1785 was a time of amazing expansion for England — or for "Great Britain," as the nation came to be called after an Act of Union in 1707 joined Scotland to England and Wales. Britain became a world power, an empire on which the sun never set. But it also changed internally. The world seemed different in 1785. A sense of new, expanding possibilities — as well as modern problems — transformed the daily life of the British people, and offered them fresh ways of thinking about their relations to nature and to each other. Hence literature had to adapt to circumstances for which there was no precedent.. The sense that everything was changing was also sparked by a revolution in science. The microscope and telescope opened new fields of vision. The authority of Aristotle and Ptolemy was broken; their systems could not explain what Galileo and Kepler saw in the heavens. Many later writers found the new science inspiring. It gave them new images to conjure with and new possibilities of fact and fiction to explore. As discoveries multiplied, it became clear that the moderns knew things of which the ancients had been ignorant The trade and conquests that made European powers like Spain and Portugal immensely rich also brought the scourge of racism and colonial exploitation. In the eighteenth century,

John Dryden (1631-1700):

Dryden, called as, the greatest man of a little age, was the one complete representative of this period. We must not forget his elders, Edmund Waller and Sir John Denham who were pioneers of the so called classic school of poetry against the excesses of the metaphysical school of thought. and in favor of good sense, neatness and clearness of expression. They reformed English versification at a time it had become harsh. Waller especially brought into effect the classic couplet. Dryden’s poetry is representative of his age. It is restrained in imaginative power, depth of feeling, spiritual glow, but has intellect and style .It is highly eloquent. It was Dryden’s effort and example which gave heroic couplet the important place it has in English poetry.

Dryden as a poet, ripened very slowly. His first poem, an elegy on the death of young Lord Hastings, written at eighteen, was not very creative. His reputation rests primarily on satires. ‘Absalom and Achitophel ‘(1681-1682) and’ Mac Flecknoe’ (1682) are the most remarkable of Dryden's political satires. Among his other poetic works are noteworthy translations of Roman satirists and of the works of Virgil and the Pindaric ode “Alexander's Feast,” which was published in 1697. The poetry of John Dryden possesses force, and fullness of tone. At the same time, his poetry sets a tone of moderation and good taste. His polished, heroic couplet (a unit of two rhyming lines of iambic pentameter)( which he inherited from his predecessors and which he developed,) became the dominant form, in the composition of his longer poems.

In his poems are found stylistic restraint, compression, clarity, and common sense that is lacking in much of the poetry of the preceding age, particularly in the mechanically complex metaphorical wit of the older metaphysical school.. The bulk of Dryden's work was in prose. Dryden's poetry defined the tone of his time, Dryden’s poetry alike in its merits and demerits, is thoroughly representative of his age. As a whole it is marked by a general want of  poetic qualities. It has little imaginative power, little depth of feeling, little spiritual passion, and does not touch high lyrical heights except for ‘ Alexander’s feast’ and ‘To the memory of Mrs. Anne Killigrew’.On the other hand it is distinctive in its intellectuality and vigor of style. He gives us passages of eloquence and style though seldom poetic. It is easy to see he holds stronger place as a satirist.

Alexander Pope (1688-1744):

The chief representative of pseudo-classicism in   poetry is Dryden's successor, Alexander Pope. Pope was born in 1688 (just a hundred years before Byron), He had to endure hardship, as he was born with deformed and dwarfed body and an incurably sickly constitution, which carried with it abnormal sensitiveness of both nerves and mind.  He was a poet who was predestined to be one. He never had any formal training. He read voraciously as he was hungry for knowledge. The earlier influences were of amateur poet and critic, William Walsh who declared that England had had great poets, 'but never one great poet that was correct' (that is of thoroughly regular style). Pope accepted this hint as his guiding principle and proceeded to seek correctness by giving still further polish to the pentameter couplet of Dryden. Pope went on to publish poems at the age of twenty-one He wrote 'Essay on Criticism two years later. Just like Dryden, pope’s works are representative of his period and in pope’s case, of his own nature.   pope used couplet with ease. His essay on criticism is excellent but in his poetry he uses subjects not suitable for poetry, and also materials that were imitations and not original. .Pope was noted for his brilliant essay and further increased his popularity by the noteworthy mock-epic ‘The rape of the lock’. It takes on a silly drawing-room episode of snipping off a lock of lady’s hair into the theme of epic. His satire ’Dunciad ‘is well received. It is malicious as it mocks pope’s enemies as dull-heads...Pope had correctness of reason but not the expressive force   or spontaneous force of a genius. He polished and re-polished his poetic works. Pope put into good use, heroic couplet which he had brought to perfection. Pope took on the task of translating ‘The Iliad’ and ‘The Odyssey’ Pope’s popularity rests on his satires but he took on the task of writing his essays in verse. Like Dryden, Pope made translations of classical works, notably of the Iliad, which was a great popular and financial success. His edition of Shakespeare's works bears witness to a range of taste not usually ascribed to him.

Pope's physical disabilities brought him to premature old age, and he died in 1744. The question of Pope's rank among authors is of central importance for any theory of poetry. In his own age he was definitely regarded by his supporters as the greatest of all English poets of all time. He may not be in the same genre as Milton, Wordsworth, Shelly or Browning. He is master in satire forms and epigrams, the concise statements. His quotations in his poems are not easily forgotten. He used rimed couplet which he had borrowed from Dryden and which he had polished to greater finish. He used his rimed couplet to great advantage. . He chooses every word with the greatest care for its value as both sound and sense As the pseudo-classic spirit yielded to the romantic this judgment was modified, until in the nineteenth century it was rather popular to deny that in any true sense Pope was a poet at all. Of course the truth lies somewhere between these extremes. Into the highest region of poetry, that of great emotion and imagination, Pope scarcely enters at all.

The Restoration of the monarchy in 1660 brought hope to a nation divided by religious strife. The long reign of George III (1760-1820) saw Britain issuing forth as a colonial power. It also witnessed the desire of the people for a social order based on liberty.  The wealth brought to England by Industrialism and foreign trade had brought wealth to England but it had not reached the poor. Effects of Industrialization, (1700 – 1850) was felt deeply.

Industrialization began in Britain since there was a large supply of coal and steel and it was seen as one of the greatest colonial powers, thus allowing it to gain the capital and market needed to industrialize. Industrialization occurred in many countries, each taking a different approach to the implementation of new machinery and technology. The most notable for leading the way in industrialization is Britain. Industrialization not only made dramatic changes in the economic structure of countries but also in the social and political areas of countries. Pre-industrialization, people were based mainly in rural areas. However, when the enclosure of land became popular in the 1760’s, farmers who were tenants began to be pushed off the land. This along with the establishment of new urban towns and cities meant that people started to move away resulting in ‘English peasant villages being destroyed’. Industrialization led to much upheaval; especially socially since the whole spirit of life was affected. One of the social effects that industrialization had was that the ‘rhythm of life changed. There was growing divide between classes of rich and poor.. The emergence of the working class and the growing divide between classes also meant that a new political and economic structure was in the process of being developed. It led to the establishment of capitalism. 

Following the Restoration, French and Italian musicians, as well as painters from the Low Countries, migrated to England, giving rise to a revolution in aesthetic tastes. The literature appearing between 1660 and 1785 divides conveniently into three lesser periods of about forty years each. 

The first, extending to the death of Dryden in 1700 is characterized by an effort to bring a new refinement to English literature according to sound critical principles of what is fine and right.  Poetry and prose come to be characterized by an easy, sociable style, while in the theater comedy is triumphant. 

Summary:

The Restoration of the monarchy in 1660 brought hope to a divided nation, but no political settlement could be stable until religious issues had been resolved. The Restoration and the eighteenth century brought vast changes to the island of Great Britain, which became a single nation after 1707.

The long reign of George III (1760-1820) saw both the emergence of Britain as a colonial power and the cry for a new social order based on liberty and radical reform.  The widespread devotion to direct observation of experience established empiricism, as employed by John Locke, as the dominant intellectual attitude of the age. Publishing boomed in eighteenth-century Britain, in part because of a loosening of legal restraints on printing.

The second period, ending with the deaths of Pope in 1744 and Swift in 1745, reaches out to a wider circle of readers; with special satirical attention to what is unfitting and wrong.  Deeply conservative but lighter, the finest works of this brilliant generation of writers use myths and forms.

The third period, concluding with the death of Johnson in 1784 publication, confronts the old principles with revolutionary ideas that would come to the fore in the Romantic period.  A respect for the good judgment of ordinary people, and for standards of taste and behavior independent of social status, marks many writers of the age. Throughout the larger period, what poets most tried to see and represent was nature, understood as the universal and permanent elements in human experience. The successive stages of literary taste during the period of the Restoration and the 18th century are conveniently referred to as the ages of Dryden, Pope, and Johnson, after the three great literary figures that, one after another, carried on the so-called classical tradition in literature. The age as a whole is sometimes called the Augustan age, or the classical or neoclassical period.